92 Chokecherry

Names

Common name – Chokecherry

Scientific name – Prunus virginiana

Other names – zelkwú7

Fig 27.1: A cluster of ripe chokecherries on the branch.

Fig 27.2: Chokecherry leaves and stems.

Fig 27.3: Chokecherry blossoms in bloom.

Fig 27.4: Close-up view of chokecherry fruit.

Fig 27.5: Botanical illustration of chokecherry plant.

General information

Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), known by the Indigenous term zelkwú7 ^[2] represents one of the most extensively utilized medicinal plants by Indigenous peoples across North America. ^[6] Chokecherry represents a paradigmatic example of sophisticated Indigenous pharmacological knowledge, where traditional preparation methods optimize therapeutic benefits while minimizing potential toxicity.

Traditional Indigenous Uses

The root addresses kidney problems; the bark is used for diarrhea. Strong and flexible, it’s limbs can be used for bows and arrows, or to make bullboats and hoops. ^[7] This cherry has also been used in treatments of the respiratory system and sore throats. ^{[4, 6]} The inner bark was boiled into a tea to use as a sedative, appetite stimulant, or to treat sore throats, respiratory ailments, fevers, and diarrhea. ^{[4, 6]} The bark was also used externally for treating wounds and made cough syrups from the berries. ^[6] Chokecherries are a very important fruit in traditional diets and are part of pemmican, a staple. ^{[1, 10]}

Biochemical Basis for Medicinal Properties

Major Bioactive Compound Classes

1. Anthocyanins (Primary Active Compounds)

Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana L.) is rich in bioactive molecules as phenolics, which can act as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, among others. ^[9]

These antioxidants, primarily anthocyanins and flavonoids, help neutralize harmful free radicals in the body, reducing oxidative stress and the risk of chronic diseases. ^{[5, 9]}

Key Anthocyanin Compounds:

• Kuromanin (Cyanidin-3-glucoside): Major anthocyanin in chokecherry
• Cyanidin derivatives: Responsible for deep purple color
• Peonidin glycosides: Contributing to antioxidant activity

Chemical Structure and Properties:

Cyanidin-3-glucoside (Kuromanin):

Fig 27.6: Chemical structure of Cyanidin-3-glucoside (Kuromanin), a major anthocyanin in chokecherry.

Cyanidin aglycone + Glucose

Antioxidant Mechanism:

Anthocyanin + Free Radical• → Anthocyanin Radical• + Neutralized radical

(Electron/hydrogen donation stabilizes harmful radicals)

Bioactivities:

• Antioxidant: DPPH radical scavenging, TEAC activity
• Anti-inflammatory: COX-2 and IL-1β inhibition
• Anticancer: Uterine sarcoma cell growth inhibition

2. Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids

Chokecherry is known for its rich phytochemical content. It contains a variety of compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. ^{[5, 9]}

Major Phenolic Compounds:

• Chlorogenic acid: Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant
• Caffeic acid: Antimicrobial, wound healing
• Protocatechuic acid: Cardioprotective effects
• Quercetin derivatives: Vascular protection
• Kaempferol glycosides: Anti-inflammatory

Chemical Reactions:

Chlorogenic Acid Structure: C ₁₆ H ₁₈ O ₉

Fig 27.7: Chemical structure of Chlorogenic acid (5-Caffeoylquinic acid) found in chokecherry.

5-Caffeoylquinic acid

Anti-inflammatory Pathway:

Chlorogenic acid → NF-κB inhibition → ↓TNF-α, ↓IL-6 → ↓Inflammation

Antioxidant Activity:

Phenolic-OH + RO• → Phenolic-O• + ROH

(Hydrogen atom transfer mechanism)

3. Cyanogenic Glycosides

Chokecherry contains cyanogenic glycosides, compounds that can release toxic cyanide when ingested. The pit of the chokecherry does contain amygdalin, a product the body converts into cyanide, a deadly poison, after consumption. ^[10]

Key Cyanogenic Compounds:

• Amygdalin: Found primarily in seeds/pits
• Prunasin: Secondary cyanogenic glycoside

Chemical Structure and Mechanism:

Amygdalin (C ₂₀ H ₂₇ NO ₁₁):

Fig 27.8: Chemical structure of Amygdalin, a cyanogenic glycoside found in chokecherry pits.

Mandelonitrile + 2 Glucose units

Hydrolysis Pathway:

Amygdalin → β-glucosidase → Prunasin + Glucose

Prunasin → β-glucosidase → Mandelonitrile + Glucose

Mandelonitrile → α-hydroxynitrile lyase → Benzaldehyde + HCN

Therapeutic vs. Toxic Doses:

– Traditional preparation: Controlled amounts in whole fruit

– Isolated seeds: Potentially toxic concentrations

4. Proanthocyanidins and Tannins

It has also been used as an astringent, anti-diarrheal, and even as a sedative. The bark and dried fruit have been used to stimulate appetite. ^{[1, 6]}

Astringent Mechanisms:

Proanthocyanidin Structure:

Fig 27.9: Chemical structure of a Proanthocyanidin (Condensed tannin), responsible for the astringent properties of chokecherry.

Condensed tannins (flavan-3-ol polymers)

Astringent Action:

Tannins + Proteins → Protein precipitation

Results in: Tissue contraction, reduced secretions, antimicrobial effects

Anti-diarrheal Mechanism:

Tannins → Reduced intestinal secretions + Antimicrobial activity

5. Essential Nutrients and Minerals

Chokecherry contains minerals such as potassium and iron. These minerals play crucial roles in maintaining proper bodily functions. ^[1]

Nutritional Profile:

• Vitamin C: Immune system support, antioxidant activity
• Potassium: Cardiovascular health, blood pressure regulation
• Iron: Oxygen transport, energy metabolism
• Dietary Fiber: Digestive health, blood sugar regulation

Processing Effects on Bioactive Compounds

Total phenol content (TPC), total flavonoids content (TFC), and kuromanin concentration (KC) varied widely according to different drying and freezing conditions applied to chokecherries. ^[9]

Modern Scientific Validation

Anti-inflammatory Research

Research has shown that Chokecherry possesses anti-inflammatory properties. This can be particularly beneficial in the management of inflammatory conditions such as arthritis and related joint pain. ^[9]

Molecular Mechanisms:

Chokecherry Anthocyanins → COX-2 inhibition → ↓Prostaglandin E2 → IL-1β suppression → ↓Pro-inflammatory cytokines → NF-κB pathway inhibition → ↓Inflammatory gene expression

Cancer Research Breakthrough

Traditionally-prepared chokecherry pudding specimen had cancer inhibiting properties, while the specimens without the seed, or, with the chokecherry juice, alone, did not succeed at killing the uterine sarcoma cancer cells. ^[8]

Cancer Research Findings:

• Traditional preparation: Significant uterine sarcoma cell inhibition
• Seed-free preparations: No significant anticancer activity
• Mechanism: Synergistic effect of fruit + seed compounds

Antioxidant Superiority

Chokecherries have higher free-radical scavenging abilities than strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, saskatoon berries, and seabuckthorn. ^[3]

Antioxidant Metrics:

• DPPH assay: Superior radical scavenging
• TEAC values: High antioxidant capacity
• Comparative analysis: Outperforms common berries

Traditional Preparation Methods and Safety

Traditional Processing Techniques

A common remedy for head colds involved grinding and smoking chokecherry bark like tobacco. ^{[6, 7]}

Bark Preparation:

1. Collection: Inner bark harvested in spring
2. Drying: Air-dried to preserve active compounds
3. Preparation: Ground for tea or smoking mixtures

Berry Processing:

1. Harvesting: Late summer when fully ripe and dark
2. Traditional pudding: Whole berries including seeds, crushed and processed
3. Modern adaptations: Seed removal (loss of some medicinal properties)

Safety Considerations and Dosage

Traditional Safety Guidelines

By the time you ate enough to be poisonous, your mouth would be so dry you would not be able to swallow. ^[2]

Safety Factors:

• Natural regulation: Astringency limits overconsumption
• Traditional preparation: Whole fruit matrix provides controlled release
• Seasonal use: Fresh consumption limited to harvest season

Modern Safety Precautions

Livestock Toxicity: Chokecherry is toxic to horses, moose, cattle, goats, deer, and other animals with segmented stomachs. About 4.5–9 kilograms (10–20 pounds) of foliage can be fatal. ^[10]

Human Considerations:

• Seed consumption: Avoid consuming large quantities of isolated seeds
• Traditional methods: Safest approach using whole fruit preparations
• Processing: Traditional crushing in pudding form appears to minimize risk

Industrial Applications

Chokecherry can produce 1.5-2.5x the amount of oil produced by a canola/wheat rotation. ^[12]

References

1. American Indian Health and Diet Project, University of Kansas Medical Center. (n.d.). Foods indigenous to the Western Hemisphere: Chokecherries. https://aihd.ku.edu/foods/chokeberries.html
2. Elders and Community members of the Cayoose Creek Band of Sekw’el’was. (n.d.).
3. Green, R. C., & Low, N. H. (2013). Physicochemical composition of buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) fruit harvested in Saskatchewan, Canada. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 93 (6), 1143–1153. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps2013-087
4. Hamel, P. B., & Chiltoskey, M. U. (1975). Cherokee plants and their uses—A 400-year history. Herald Publishing Company.
5. Leng, M., & Liu, R. (2013). Antioxidant activity of Padus virginiana anthocyanins. Food Science, 34 (11), 67–71. https://doi.org/10.7506/spkx1002-6630-201311016
6. Moerman, D. E. (1998). Native American ethnobotany. Timber Press.
7. Native Memory Project. (n.d.). Chokecherry. https://nativememoryproject.org/plant/chokecherry/
8. Pete, D. S. (2017, June 12). Native American student proves traditional chokecherry pudding is medicine. Indian Country Today. https://ictnews.org/archive/bringing-science-culture-together-chokecherry-pudding/
9. Téllez-Pérez, C., Cardador-Martínez, A., Tejada-Ortigoza, V., Soria-Mejía, M. C., Balderas-León, I., & Alonzo-Macías, M. (2020). Antioxidant content of frozen, convective air-dried, freeze-dried, and swell-dried chokecherries (Prunus virginiana L.). Molecules, 25 (5), 1190. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25051190
10. United States Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). Plant fact sheet: Chokecherry Prunus virginiana L. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/factsheet/pdf/fs_prvi.pdf
11. Wang, H., Walla, J. A., Magnusson, V. A., Zhong, S., & Dai, W. (2014). Construction of genetic linkage maps and QTL mapping for X-disease resistance in tetraploid chokecherry (Prunus virginiana L.) using SSR and AFLP markers. Molecular Breeding, 34 (1), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11032-014-0025-3
12. Wang, S., Young, L., Faye, A., Li, B., Clancy, J., Bors, B., & Reaney, M. J. T. (2012). Food and biomass potential of Prunus virginiana L. (chokecherry). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60 (41), 10302–10310. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf2042328